Success through Failure - Petroski (2006)

Henry Petroski is a professor of Civil Engineering and history at Duke University.  He is the author of numerous books on engineering and design.

In Success through Failure,as the name suggests,Petroski demonstrates how many of the greatest achievements in design have grown out of failures.  The key to successful designs, whether they be bridges or marketing strategies, is the ability of the designers to either learn from prior failures or to anticipate failure based on their experiences.  The author states, "Failures are remarkable.  The failures always teach us more than the successes about the design of things."

Petroski contends that how a person reacts to failures determines whether they are a leader or a follower, a designer or a mere user.  He further states that, while understanding failure is the path to success, success is often the path to failure.  The author notes, "...victory can be an intoxicant.  Pride in the new successful thing typically turns in time to nonchalance, as the once-revolutionary thing becomes a common thing.  Common things virtually become invisible things."  Petroski provides numerous examples of engineering designs involving bridges and skyscrapers where the extension of successful designs eventually led to catastrophic failures because of complacency and the expectation of success.

Related to the vulnerability generated by success, Petroski cites research that has shown that catastrophic failures with regard to bridge designs tend to occur in 30 year cycles.  Other research has revealed this same phenomenon in other areas, as well.  Petroski posits that this could be due to a "generational gap" where the success of certain designs has become so accepted that new professionals entering the field no longer question their appropriateness for new applications and assume success without considering elements that might lead to failure under new circumstances.

Petroski quotes the English biologist T.H. Huxley, "There is the greatest practical benefit in making a few failures early in life."  Petroski concludes warning that we must be wary of the "lure" of success lest we miss the "lessons" of failure.

Cyber War - Richard A. Clark (2010)

Richard Clark served in a variety of national security roles within the administrations of Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush.  He currently teaches at the Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government.

As the title implies, Cyber War looks at the growing threat to our national security posed by "Cyber Warriors" and "Cyber Criminals."  Clark explains that although recent announcements by the US Military might lead one to believe that the US was just gearing up for cyber war, in fact, the US has been out in front in planning cyber attacks should hostilities arise.  These efforts, however, have concentrated on offensive measures not on the defense of our own infrastructure. They have also lacked coordination.

Cyber defensive measures have focused entirely on government networks and have left the nation's infrastructure, such as the power grid and air traffic control system, to the private sector to secure.  Clark views this as a huge threat that could bring our nations' economy and security to its knees almost instantaneously.  Clark notes that there has been extensive penetration of the US network infrastructure by other nations, most notably China.  This has resulted in the copying of enormous amounts of information and data and even the placement of logic bombs that could threaten the US power grid. 

Although the US leads in offensive capabilities with regard to Cyber Warfare, it is also the most vulnerable to attack.  The vulnerability derives from the fact that the US is the most technologically dependent country in the world and becoming more so every day.  It is also one of the only countries that leaves the defense of its vital infrastructure to private corporations.

Clark urges that several steps be taken to protect the US against cyber attack.  First, he believes that the US must develop standards and a strategy for protecting its vital infrastructure, most importantly the power grid.  Other "just in time" components of the supply chain must also be hardened against attack.  The US and other technologically-advanced nations must begin negotiating treaties and agreements to manage the threat of cyber war.  Clark compares these to the treaties signed by Russia and the US to limit the expansion of nuclear weapons during the cold war.  Finally, Clark recommends disconnecting vital security networks from the Internet.  He notes, however, that this is extremely difficult.  Even with an "air gap" between the network and the Internet, many security breaches are likely to occur as people move data from secure networks to computers used at home, to mobile devices etc.

Cyber War provides a vivid description of how the world has changed.  Nations can be devastated instantaneously without any logistical consideration.  Obviously, Cyber War highlights the need for a highly-skilled technical workforce.  But it also reveals the need for leaders with the skills of diplomacy that understand the nature of these threats and what is necessary to mitigate them.

How are our schools preparing students for such a world?